Early Morphological Thinking

Our concerns about architecture’s trajectory in the digital age are deeply rooted in our perceived relationship with the natural world. To understand this we must revisit a pivotal shift in post-Enlightenment thought: the move from vitalism to empiricism in the 19th century. This era saw remarkable scientific progress, enhancing our grasp of the underlying processes of life across humans, animals, and plants.


Vitalists believed that living beings had a distinct, ethereal element—perhaps a soul or spirit— that differentiated them from non-living entities (Harris, 1998). On the other hand, empiricists
contended that universal laws governed all phenomena and sought empirical evidence to support this. The pioneering work of D’Arcy Thompson, a biologist mathematician Charles Darwin, a naturalist-biologist illuminated how genetics and environment influence the physical attributes of the natural world. In his seminal work “The Origin of Species,” posited that observable traits (phenotypes) played a role in natural selection, which subsequently steered evolution (Darwin, 1859). Thompson’s “On Growth and Form” highlighted the significance of physical factors in determining the forms of species, using mathematical models to elucidate how external forces impacted organisms’ adaptations.

Figure 1 Artwork from On Growth and Form, Chapter XVII (1917), on page 1062. Authored by D. Wentworth Thompson


The evolutionary concepts of Darwin, coupled with Thompson’s structuralist perspective, galvanized architects to incorporate natural elements and behaviours into their designs. In the U.S., Louis Sullivan was a proponent of functionalism, asserting that a building’s design should emanate from its intended function (Sullivan, 1896). Frank Lloyd Wright, an early associate of Sullivan championed the integration of natural patterns into architectural designs, a concept he termed ‘organic architecture’ (Wright, 1939). This philosophy was manifest in Wright’s Prairie Houses, where architecture was conceived as a living entity harmonizing with its surroundings. The designs of this period seamlessly melded natural motifs with the overarching geometry of a building, emphasizing congruity at every level—from intricate details to expansive spatial configurations.


This philosophy is termed “morphological thinking,” enabling architects to delve into how principles from nature can be universally applied in architectural design (Jones, 1970). Nature has always been a profound source of inspiration for architects, long before the digital age. Historically, architects have looked to the natural world to inform their designs, drawing from its patterns, structures, and processes (Pallasmaa, 2011). One of the distinguished architect and academic at Stuttgart University, Achim Menges, posits that this thinking remains pertinent today. He argues that in nature, form and material are intrinsically intertwined. Conversely, “morphogenetic design” serves as a bridge between design and production, crucial for leveraging the complete capabilities of digital advancements in architecture (Menges, 2012).


Before the proliferation of digital tools, architects used various mediums to capture and translate the essence of nature into their designs. Sketching and physical modeling were primary tools, allowing architects to visualize and conceptualize architectural forms inspired by natural patterns (Pallasmaa, 2011). For instance, the intricate patterns observed in leaves,
the branching of trees, or the structure of a bird’s nest have all been sources of inspiration. Antoni Gaudí, the renowned Catalan architect, is a prime example of someone who extensively studied nature’s forms and used them as a basis for his designs (Zerbst, 2002). His works, like the Sagrada Família in Barcelona, showcase columns resembling tree trunks and facades that mimic natural forms.


More examples like, Alvar Aalto’s designs, like the Viipuri Library, showcased nature-inspired forms and materials, reflecting his humanistic approach to modernism (Göran, 1994). Hassan Fathy, an Egyptian architect, combined traditional materials with nature-inspired techniques for sustainable architecture in hot-arid climates (Steele, 1997). Though the primary method of drawing was all by hand, it can be seen that nature and traditional values were used as a visualization tool to inspire as upcoming architecture in the late 19th century.

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